1

The place and role of public research

in adapting to climate change

_______________ PRESENTATION_____________________

Research plays a key role in adapting to climate change, whether by

generating knowledge, mobilising expertise to support decision-making or

developing solutions.

The accumulation of knowledge about the climate since the 1960s

has enabled the scientific community to alert decision-makers to climate

risks at an early stage. In 1988, the United Nations founded the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which collates

scientific findings to inform action. France’s highly structured climate

science community has actively contributed to the climate projections on

which the IPCC’s analyses are based.

The IPCC organises its work into three working groups that reflect

the structure of French research and are devoted respectively to climate

science (group 1), impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation to climate

change (group 2) and mitigation of this change (group 3). Using a variety

of methods (see box), the Court has been able to draw on the work carried

out by these three groups in order to trace the place, resources and roles

of French public research in adapting to climate change.

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The place and role of research in adapting to climate change are

part of a continuum (see diagram 1). Research on adaptation targets issues

directly linked to adaptation to climate change. Research for adaptation

includes this research on adaptation as well as all the climate

infrastructures, data and knowledge that form the essential basis for all

adaptation work and informing action. Research on mitigation was also

discussed, in particular to identify research at the intersection between

adaptation and mitigation, which is crucial for limiting maladaptation.

With regard to research for adaptation, France plays a leading role

on the international stage. However, disparities exist between sectors and

territories. Even if they can be brought together within the framework of

specific projects, French laboratories appear to be highly specialised, with

little integration of sustainability issues, which could increase the risk of

maladaptation caused by a fragmented vision of the obstacles and

solutions (I).

French adaptation research has significant resources at its

disposal, both in human and financial terms and in terms of infrastructure.

However, these resources, which are crucial to preparing for the future,

are under considerable strain (II).

Providing a wealth of diverse scientific expertise to inform decision-

making, French public research is also innovating by proposing numerous

solutions. Among these solutions, climate services are an essential basis

for enabling stakeholders to plan ahead. However, the impact of the results

of research could be enhanced by greater visibility and stronger

governance (III).

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Methods used to compile an overview of research into

climate change adaptation

In the absence of a specific IT system, and with the help of French

research organisations, in particular the French National Research Agency

(ANR), the Court has developed methods for analysing the performance and

resources of research for adaptation.

It based its analysis on over 40,000 citations of scientific

publications mentioned in the three working groups reports of the 6th

assessment report (AR 6) of the IPCC. These citations were harmonised and

cross-referenced with open French research datasets

1

. Semantic analyses

were also carried out, which, although less reliable than tracking IPCC

citations, make it possible to reconstruct long series, in particular to trace

funding over time.

To enable these methods to be used for other sustainability issues, in

particular

biodiversity

and

ecosystem

services,

monitored

by

the

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Services (IPBES), the tools used are presented on the Court’s website in the

form of a methodological guide, open data and source code elements (see the

international appendix below providing to the international audience a short

description of the Court, an overview of the methodological guide and links

to open resources with associated licences and disclaimers).

In addition to these quantitative methods, the Court gathered

information from the major State funders and operators involved in research

for adaptation. Interviews were also conducted with around 70 people,

including in other EU Member States.

1

In addition to the IPCC citations, the open data used includes the Hal bibliographic

tool of the CNRS and the national directory of research bodies of the Ministry of

Research. In order to be able to assess the scope of the analyses carried out on the basis

of this open data, the Court used the InCites tool (for a fee). Hal’s excellent coverage

of the scope studied was verified for IPCC citations through collaboration with the

ANR, which has access to raw “Web of Science” data.

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Diagram n° 1 : the place and role of research in adaptation

Source: Court of Accounts

Climate sciences (in blue) is actively working on generic solutions for adaptation, such as

observing the earth and making data available, mobilising the necessary expertise to facilitate

the appropriation of climate projections or designing climate services with the relevant

sectors. Research into impacts, vulnerability and adaptation (in green) covers a huge range

of disciplines, including environmental science, climate science and the humanities and social

sciences. As well as providing a wealth of new knowledge and expertise, this research is

contributing to a wide range of targeted solutions for adaptation. As for mitigation (in yellow),

it contributes to adaptation in the sense that it reduces the risk of maladaptation when

approaches integrating adaptation and mitigation are developed in a comprehensive way.

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I -

France is a world leader in climate science,

with a more modest position in adaptation and

mitigation

French research stands out in the climate sciences and, to a lesser

extent, in the fields of adaptation and mitigation (A). There are disparities

between sectors and territories (B). Research potential is hampered by

compartmentalisation (C).

A -

The place of French work on the international stage

With a heritage dating back to the early 19

th

century, France plays a

pivotal role in climate science. It has two major models of the Earth that

can be used to simulate climate change and are the leading authorities in

this field: the model developed by the

Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace

(IPSL)

in Île-de-

France and the model developed by Météo France’s

Centre

national de recherches météorologiques

(CNRM), in conjunction with

Cerfacs in Toulouse.

The Court’s analyses of the IPCC’s work show that France is a

leading player in the field of climate science. It is ranked between 4th and

5th in the world, depending on the source, while it is 6th in general

scientific terms. Its share of global publications cited by the IPCC is

between 9.4 % and 14 %, which is higher than for all disciplines combined

(4.5 %). Its weighting in the field of impacts, vulnerability and adaptation

(between 5.5 % and 8.4 %) is also above average, although it is four places

lower over the period 2011-2021 compared with 1999-2010. French

research on mitigation, on the other hand, is less developed, accounting for

between 2.9 % and 6 % of IPCC citations, putting it between 10th and 11th

place.

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B -

National research marked by major sectoral

and regional disparities

1 -

Concentration of scientific capacity within a small number of territories

The climate sciences are concentrated in the Île-de-France region and

around Toulouse and Grenoble. The sciences covered by the second group of

the IPCC, including research on adaptation, are concentrated in the Île-de-

France region, Toulouse and Montpellier. There are also secondary centres,

notably in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. Overall, research for adaptation is

fairly evenly spread (see chart 1, on the left).

Map n° 1 : metropolitan distribution of scientific capacity dedicated

to the challenges of adaptation.

Source: Court of Accounts analyses based on citations from the IPCC (6th cycle) cross-

referenced with Hal

2 -

Uneven impact of research, with shortcomings in health

and urban environments

French climate science has a major impact regardless of the topic

addressed. On the other hand, research into impacts, vulnerability and

adaptation has a variable impact depending on the sector and territory (see

graphics 1 and 2 below).

French research ranks at the highest international level in the fields

of biodiversity and ecosystem services, Mediterranean areas and coastal

and island areas. France is also well positioned in agricultural, forestry and

water-related issues. However, it is not sufficiently well positioned in the areas

of health, urban planning, cities and development.

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Graph n° 1 : impact of French work on adaptation by sector

(% of citations worldwide)

Source: Court of Accounts analyses based on citations from the IPCC (AR 6) cross-referenced

with Hal

Graph n° 2 : impact of French work on adaptation by territory

(% of citations worldwide)

Source: Court of Accounts analyses based on citations from the IPCC (AR 6) cross-referenced

with Hal

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Despite the major risks they face, overseas territories are poorly

represented, with the exception of a few sectors and types of territory.

Under the impetus of a dynamic metropolitan research structure

2

, research

on overseas territories is well developed for island territories. However, its

weak presence

in

the French overseas territories risks slowing down the

appropriation of knowledge and adaptation solutions. A targeted analysis

of university sites in the French overseas territories shows that the research

capacity dedicated to adaptation is better represented in Réunion and

French Guiana than in the other overseas territories.

Regionalised climate projections for the French overseas territories

need to be implemented rapidly in order to boost French scientific

production on these territories and provide a better response to the

adaptation challenges they face.

C -

Potential hampered by compartmentalisation

1 -

A large number of laboratories involved, often in different ways

The IPCC citations show that of the 3,451 French research laboratories,

at least 7 % have contributed to research for adaptation and at least 3 % more

directly to adaptation issues.

These figures reflect the strong involvement of the French

community. However, the level of involvement in adaptation remains

variable, with a handful of laboratories accounting for most of the IPCC

citations relating to France. This phenomenon prevails in the climate

sciences group. The most representative example is provided by the

Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l’environnement

(LSCE)

3

, which

alone accounts for nearly 26 % of all citations for all sectors combined, and

45 % for the first group. The capacity of the second group is spread across

a larger number of laboratories. The third group, which is smaller for

France compared with the other two groups, is characterised by an

intermediate level of concentration, with a few laboratories in the Paris

region having a strong international profile.

2

The “Littoral Environment et Sociétés” (LIENS) laboratory, under the joint

3

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2 -

Humanities and social sciences under-represented

The French research cited by the IPCC is structured along

contrasting disciplinary lines. Group 1 is dominated by the climate sciences

and Group 2 by the environmental sciences, with a significant weighting

of climate sciences, life sciences and, to a lesser extent, the humanities and

social sciences. The latter are predominant only in group 3 on mitigation.

They are very poorly represented in research for adaptation, which is likely

to weaken transition trajectories.

3 -

Insufficient intersection between adaptation and mitigation,

with risks of maladaptation

Scientific ecosystems remain compartmentalised (see graphic 3).

Only the link between climate science (group 1) and risk, vulnerability and

adaptation (group 2) is more developed in France. Mitigation sciences

(group 3) appear to be disconnected from the other two groups, particularly

the adaptation group. This weakness, which is not specific to France,

increases the risk of maladaptation. There are, however, exceptions which

can be detected using the method employed by the Court (see III). The

limited scientific capacity dedicated to intersecting domains are

concentrated in the Île-de-France region (see chart 1 above, on the right).

Graph n° 3 : research for adaptation split into silos

Source: Court of Accounts analysis of cross-references between IPCC groups

Reading key: group 1 covers climate sciences, group 2 impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation,

and group 3 mitigation. For example, “Groups 1 and 2” shows the proportion of work cited jointly

by groups 1 and 2. While the approach used here does not reflect all interdisciplinary work, it

does make it possible to estimate the proportion of work covering both adaptation and mitigation

issues.

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4 -

Operators focused on climate sciences

Although some foreign players are exceptions, such as Wageningen

University in the Netherlands and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact

Research in Germany, the Court’s analyses show that the international

partners of French research are on the whole divided between climate

science, adaptation and mitigation. France is no exception to this

compartmentalisation, with a marked specialisation of its research

operators in climate sciences. France’s top twenty research on adaptation

operators all specialise in climate science, with the exception of the French

National Institute for Research in Agriculture, Food and the Environment

(INRAE), the University of Montpellier and the French Research Institute

for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER), which specialise in impacts,

vulnerability and adaptation, and the Centre for International Cooperation

in Agricultural Research for Development (CIRAD), the only operator

specialising in mitigation.

Although they may come together within the framework of projects,

French operators and laboratories appear to be specialised by discipline or

sector.

II -

Resources to be strengthened in the long term

France’s performance in research for adaptation and, to a lesser

extent, research on adaptation, can be explained by the resources deployed

(see summary table below). Significant financial resources have been

allocated (A), but this effort is in danger of being undermined by the

pressure on scientific talent pools (B) and the lack of sustainability of

research infrastructures (C).

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Table n° 1 : r

esources for research for adaptation (in €m).

Type of resources

Estimated amounts

in €

M per year

Research projects (1/3 European Union, 1/3 National

Research Agency (ANR) and 1/3 future investments)

81

Human resources (excluding research bodies)

129

Research infrastructures (operating)

149

Total research for adaptation (low estimate)

359

Total public research expenditure across all sectors

(source: MESR, for 2020)

18,100

Share of research for adaptation (%)

At least 2 %

Source: Court of Accounts summary and estimates

The amounts for multi-annual projects have been standardised by the number of years concerned

in order to obtain an annual average. Data relating to the staff of research organisations cannot

be produced due to shortcomings in the IT systems.

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rates for these subjects are higher than average, which indicates that they

receive priority support from the Commission. According to a study by the

European Court of Auditors, although the Commission has adopted

ambitious climate funding objectives, the target is still a long way off

8

.

Graph n° 4 : e

uropean funding for research on adaptation (in €

M)

Source: Court analysis based on European data sets from the MESR

With regard to successful European research for adaptation projects,

France (€161.05 million) is tied for first place with Germany (€161.06

million), ahead of Spain (€121.69 million), the Netherlands (€113.72 million)

and Italy (€55.68 millio

n). In terms of research on adaptation, France is in first

place among the five countries studied (€80.52

m, compared with €77.24m

for Spain, €74.54m for Germany, €54.26m for the Netherlands and €36.49m

for Italy). In terms of selection rates, France came first for projects in

adaptation and second for projects for adaptation, behind the Netherlands.

2 -

Declining national funding for research on adaptation

At national level, research into adaptation projects is supported by

the ANR. Over the period 2012-2022, funding allocated to research for

adaptation increased. The implementation of the law of 24 December 2020

on research planning for the period from 2021 to 2030, which increased the

ANR’s budget from 2021 onwards, has had a significant impact on research

for adaptation as well as on all the research it supports. For 2023, the

ANR’s operating credits will be 7.4

% higher than in 2022, which could

enable research for adaptation to be better funded.

8

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According to analysis of an ANR database, the consistency of which

was verified by the Court, research for adaptation and research on adaptation

account for 3.9 % and 1.4

% of the agency’s budget respectively. The second

PNACC (2018 - 2022) has had no additional effect compared with the first

PNACC (2011 - 2015). The increase in ANR funding is +9.6 % for research

for adaptation, compared with +18.1 % for all fields. Specific funding for

adaptation even decreased between the two national plans. Research into

climate risks has remained stable overall. Only climate-related research has

increased at a more sustained rate.

ANR funding is allocated in proportion to the number of projects

submitted to evaluation committees. Insofar as there is no specific

evaluation committee for adaptation, funding in this area appears to be

limited.

The Agency’s support for research for adaptation was

proportionately higher between 2010 and 2012. At that time, the

“

management and impacts of climate change

” (GICC) programme was still

active and provided targeted support to supplement the projects funded by

the ANR, which may have played a structuring role.

Research on adaptation needs specific incentives to strengthen the

scientific communities involved and the links between them.

3 -

Exceptional funding as part of future investments (France 2030)

In addition to its own calls for projects, the ANR also manages the

research funding earmarked for the future investment programmes (PIA),

now known as France 2030. These programmes fund more application-

oriented research. Most of the PIA funding relating to adaptation were

concentrated on the period of the first PNACC, totalling €270 million,

compared with €126 million for the second PNACC.

Of the AIP instruments, only the “Make our planet great again”

(Mopga) action is described in detail in the second PNACC. Of the total

€30 million of planned subsidies, it is estimated that between €13.2 million

and €24.6 million will be devoted to adaptation research. Some recently

launched Mopga projects have already led to publications cited by the

IPCC. This interim assessment should be updated.

New instruments, known as priority research programmes and

equipment (PEPR, see inset), should increase the funds devoted to research

for adaptation, targeting the strengths rather than the weaknesses of the

French research system. This approach, if not counterbalanced by more

integrated approaches, could increase the risk of maladaptation.

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PEPRs: new financial perspectives for adaptation,

a reproduction of sectoral silos

As part of France 2030, the Priority Research Programmes and

Equipment (PEPR) fund research in line with political priorities. According to

the participants interviewed, no fewer than 11 PEPRs, representing a total of

€483.2 million, or 16.1

% of the total budget allocated to all PEPRs (€3 billion),

fall within the scope of research for adaptation.

Of these 11 PEPRs, eight are co-lead by the CNRS and seven by the

INRAE, the two major operators specialising in climate science and

adaptation respectively. These players jointly manage four PEPRs. Only

one is co-led by the three main operators specialising in climate science,

adaptation and mitigation (CNRS, INRAE and CIRAD). By way of

illustration, the Traccs

9

and AVS

10

PEPRs fall within the direct scope of

research for adaptation and will help to develop technological solutions for

adaptation (optimised plant and climate services respectively).

None of the PEPRs target adaptation issues in a cross-sectoral and

global manner.

B -

Scientific talent pools under pressure

The funding allocated to project-based research, which accounts for a

large proportion of resources, is not the whole story. To this should be added

the regular funding provided by the ministry of higher education and research

and operators for infrastructures, as well as permanent staff. The latter are

essential for carrying out project-based research, mobilising infrastructures to

produce new knowledge and solutions and, ultimately, offering high-quality

expertise to stakeholders. Permanent research staff are also essential for

nurturing the young talent of tomorrow

11

.

9

10

11

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1 -

Falling numbers of permanent staff

Analysis of a large proportion of the scientific talent pools in the area

of research for adaptation at university sites shows that staff numbers are

stagnating both in climate sciences (down 2 % between 2010 and 2021) and

in research into impacts, vulnerability and adaptation (down 1 % over the

same period). A worrying trend can be seen in the recruitment of young

teacher-researchers (lecturers, down by 6 % and 4 % for the two areas), for

whom the recruitment rate is lower than for established teacher-researchers

(university professors, up by 7 % and 5 % respectively).

2 -

After a growth phase, the training of young talent in research

for adaptation has stagnated

The number of theses in the field of research for adaptation in

general and research on adaptation in particular rose sharply in the early

2000s (231% and 364 % respectively between 2000 and 2010). Growth in

these fields far outstripped the average growth rate for theses across all

disciplines (+15 % over the same period). However, this strong growth has

come to a halt since 2017-2018.

In view of the growing need for expertise in the field of adaptation,

the scientific talent pools are undersized, with weaknesses identified in

both the short term (permanent researchers) and the long term (young talent

trained through research).

C -

Vital infrastructures with uncertain long-term

financing

Research for adaptation requires the mobilisation of major research

infrastructures to provide the basic data needed for scientific work, whether

in the form of observation data on the Earth system in all its components,

data simulated using computational resources (see box) or experimental

data to assess the impacts of climate change.

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Supercomputers, key tools for climate simulations

The Climeri-France infrastructure enables the production of

benchmark climate simulations on different geographical scales. It

integrates models from the

Institut Pierre Simon Laplace

(IPSL) and

Météo France, making it easier to exploit climate change simulations.

Climeri-France groups together the computing resources needed to

carry out the simulations, drawing in particular on the large-scale national

intensive computing facility (Genci) and Météo France, as well as data

storage and human resources. The total cost of this infrastructure is

estimated at €12 million per year, including around €6 million in computing

and storage costs at Genci. The associated publications are unusual in that

they involve a very large number of authors and funders. They are widely

cited and form the scientific basis of the IPCC.

Météo

France’s supercomputers are also used to forecast climate

change on a French scale, using methods that regionalise the latest global

predictions

12

. These new projections are used to update Drias Climat

13

, the

reference French portal for data on climate change.

Some research infrastructures are funded by programme 172,

Multidisciplinary

Scientific

and

Technological

Research,

of

the

Interministerial Mission for Research and Higher Education (Mires).

Most are

financed from the research organisations’ own funds, which could lead to

problems of sustainability.

The operating cost of research for adaptation infrastructures is

estimated at least

€137 million per

, not including the cost of Climeri

France (estimated at €12 million a year).

Many key infrastructures are facing issues related to their age, with

no funding identified for their modernisation.

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III -

Scientific support for society suffering from

a lack of national coordination

Scientists provide key expertise to inform decision-making.

However, there remain gaps resulting from local initiatives that are

developing in a fragmented way. Coordination between government

departments and operators and local authorities needs to be strengthened.

Research promotes innovation and offers a wide range of adaptation

solutions and services. Despite the progress made, the dissemination of

services and other solutions could be improved. To mitigate the effect of

siloed management, a reorganisation of the governance of research

activities is needed. The implementation of the next national plan for

adaptation to climate change (PNACC) should provide an opportunity to

establish greater coordination between the various players.

A -

The vital but inconsistent role of scientific expertise

in decision-making support.

The resources deployed in support of research for adaptation have

made it possible to build up a structured scientific talent pools, which is

essential for informing adaptation policies and investment decisions at all

geographical scales.

1 -

The presence of French experts within the IPCC is a major

asset in decision-making support

Scientific expertise in research for adaptation is present at all

levels, first and foremost through the IPCC, whose work informs the

climate policies pursued by virtually all public players. France is formally

represented on the IPCC by the Directorate General for Energy and

Climate (DGEC), which reports to both the minister for environmental

transition and territorial cohesion and the minister for the economy,

finance and industrial and digital sovereignty.

Due to their influence, the French experts at the IPCC play an

important role in decision-making at all levels (international, national,

regional). The hierarchy observed in the standing of French experts within

the IPCC is consistent with the analyses of the scientific work cited by this

body, which underlines the importance for States of strengthening their

research capacity in order to be in a position to have an impact in terms of

expertise at international level. Increasing the French presence, with experts

specialising jointly in adaptation and mitigation (IPCC groups 2 and 3),

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should be a long-term priority for the 7th IPCC assessment report, which

began in 2023.

2 -

Regional groups of climate experts: local mechanisms

that require better coordination with the national level

Over the last ten years or so, in response to the climate emergency,

various joint science-society initiatives have been set up to inform

decision-making as closely as possible to local issues. These bodies, which

offer expertise tailored to local issues, are now known as regional expert

groups on climate (GREC).

The scientific expertise provided by GRECs complements that of

national operators such as Météo France, Ademe and the Cerema (French

Centre for Studies and Expertise on Risks, the Environment, Mobility and

Land Use). These organisations offer adaptation solutions to local

authorities, although their approach is more focused on tools and structured

service offerings. These players themselves also call on scientific expertise

to ensure the quality of their services.

There are ten GRECs in total. Their distribution throughout the

country is uneven. There are no such groups in five regions of mainland

France or in the overseas territories, with the exception of Guadeloupe. These

groups have different statuses and are not recognised in the same way

15

.

Some have the unique feature of being attached to research bodies, which

provides a framework for legitimising their expertise.

All in all, whatever their level of maturity, the GRECs do not have

an institutional structure comparable to the IPCC and are not always based

on the latest scientific findings. The IPCC has published an opinion stating

that two GRECs claiming to be “regional IPCCs”

16

had in no way been

endorsed by the international body.

The status of these groups should be harmonised at national level, if

necessary under the guidance of the regions. A label could be created,

subject to compliance with specifications to ensure the quality of their

expertise. In line with its missions, which it carries out both at national

level and with local authorities, the High Council for the Climate (HCC),

which brings together many scientists involved in research for adaptation,

would have the task of defining the specifications for this label and

assessing the structures likely to benefit from it.

The ministry of ecological transition could provide the secretariat for

the labelling process and lead the GREC network to promote the coherence of

15

Influence was measured in terms of the number of citations of GREC websites.

16

The “GIEC des Pays de la Loire” and the “GIEC

-

normand”.

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French expertise. Synergies could be sought, for example to carry out

coordinated expert assessments for areas facing similar climate risks. The HCC

could also call on the GREC network to strengthen the territorial dimension of

its opinions, from a comparative perspective.

Overall, better governance of territorial expertise would encourage

synergies at a time of growing pressure on the relevant talent pools.

Coordination between the State and local authorities regarding the use of

expertise would make it possible to avoid duplication of studies on subjects

of common interest (urban, coastal, mountainous areas, etc.).

B -

Examples of how French research is contributing to

a range of adaptation solutions

1 -

Complementary solutions

French research, depending on the specialisation of its laboratories,

innovates and proposes numerous solutions for adaptation. In order to meet

a specific need expressed by a particular player, sector or territory, an

integration process is required to propose a coherent set of solutions. This

integration process takes the form of collective expertise, consultancy or

service provision, and can also be provided through research projects.

a)

Technological solutions

Among the technological solutions, reference climate data portals and

climate services, which are more structured and offer operational adaptation

responses, form a digital foundation that is often indispensable for all other

research and solutions. Numerous other technological solutions are being

developed to adapt specific sectors, for example to maintain crop yields

17

,

improve building habitability by using more appropriate materials, or protect

people’s health by discovering molecules that reduce the risks of infectious

diseases aggravated by the climate, as in the case of malaria. The development

of these solutions has resulted in the filing of patents and the creation of

innovative research-based companies.

The patents are easy to trace, as their classification includes a category

relating specifically to adaptation. A study by the French High Council for

17

For instance, numerous genetic selection techniques can be used to select plants that

Advanced varietal selection (AVS) in the

face of climate change) already mentioned in section II.C).

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the Evaluation of Research and Higher Education

18

, based on similar

monitoring, concluded that France filed 6.2 % of patent applications relating

to climate change, placing it sixth globally. The latest data from the European

Patent Office shows that France files 4.8 % of applications related to climate

change, with a lower level for adaptation (4.2 %) than for mitigation (4.9 %).

The number of patents jointly targeting adaptation and mitigation objectives

is low, but France manages to do better than the overall average (5.4 %

compared with 4.8 %).

Several innovative companies with a strong research and development

component were identified. A semantic analysis was first applied to the open

data made available by Ademe. In total, 17 funded projects were identified, out

of a total of 1,174, or 1.4

% of projects. Ademe’s response made it

possible to

confirm this order of magnitude and to identify the projects covered by the

scope of the survey.

By way of example, the start-up Mycophyto, a spin off from by

INRAE and the Université Côté d’Azur

19

, is carrying out the MycoAgri

project, funded by Ademe. The aim of the project is to develop and market

mycorrhization solutions, i.e. symbioses between plants and microscopic

fungi, for vines and roses. The aim is to increase the root surface area of

plants, so that they are more resistant to drought and need fewer inputs

(fertilisers, water).

b)

Nature-based solutions

Nature-based solutions (NBS) are a set of methods for managing

ecosystems with the aim of improving or at least preserving the services they

provide to mankind and the environment, particularly in terms of adapting to

climate change. Examples of concrete achievements in this field are provided

by the “Pathways of Transformation in the Alps” (PORTAL) project

20

, led

by a CNRS researcher attached to the Grenoble alpine ecology laboratory

21

.

PORTAL has led to the creation of a platform of nature-based

solutions initiatives in the Alps

22

. This model could inspire new ways of

adapting to climate risks in mountain areas. The PEPR “

Biodiversité et

18

See: https://publication.enseignementsup-recherche.gouv.fr/eesr/FR/EESR15_R_53/la_position

_scientifique_et_technologique_de_la_france_dans_la_recherche_sur_l_environnement/.

19

See http://mycophyto.fr/.

20

https://anr.fr/ProjetIA-19-MPGA-0009. This project was funded by the MOPGA

programme referred to in section II.

21

Laboratory under the supervision of Grenoble Alpes University, Savoie Mont Blanc

University and the CNRS.

22

https://portal.osug.fr/

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solutions fondées sur la nature : innover avec la nature pour créer des

impacts positifs pour la biodiversité, la société et l’économie”

(Biodiversity

and nature-based solutions: innovating with nature to create positive impacts

for biodiversity, society and the economy) (Solubiod), supported by CNRS

and INRAE, proposes new scientific approaches to NBS.

c)

Social innovations

Social innovations include a wide range of work, such as scenario-

building with stakeholders in a given area on adaptation trajectories using,

for example, nature-based solutions (see box) or comparative methods of

governance for adaptation policies

23

. They also relate to the way in which

research is conducted in the area of adaptation, for example through the

‘action research’ approach

24

.

Such research encourages exchanges between stakeholders whose

interests may diverge, in order to identify the most consensual solutions for

adaptation, which are then likely to be adopted and deployed on a large

scale. Social innovations are driven by the humanities and social sciences,

whose involvement remains

limited within the scope of the IPCC’s 2nd

group, which covers adaptation (I).

An example of a participatory research project to

strengthen adaptation in the Alps by mobilising social innovations

Socio-ecosystems include social elements as well as closely

associated biophysical elements. Through the quality of life they provide

for populations, socio-ecosystems contribute to adaptation to climate

change

. In the coming years, strengthening adaptation through nature-

based solutions will require major changes in the practices that underpin the

many interactions between humans and their environment

.

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Against this backdrop, developing ways of adapting alongside the

stakeholders in the territories concerned is a strategic priority. This process

relies on social innovations such as the formalisation of adaptation scenarios

and the use of serious games. As part of the “Mountain paths” project,

stakeholders in the Pays de la Meije, located in the Alps on the edge of the

Écrins massif, were invited to design a desired vision for their territory in

2040 and to reflect on the strategies and modes of action to achieve it. The

project, coordinated by a CNRS researcher, was financed by the ANR and

PIA funds.

2 -

Deployment of climate services to be stepped up

The climate projections developed by the climate sciences form the

essential basis for planning and investment strategies. In order to meet

operational needs, this complex data must be combined with studies applied

to specific sectors and territor

ies, with the use of “à la carte”

27

scientific

expertise or with targeted climate services (see box below).

An example of French research to reduce the risk

of maladaptation caused by large-scale air conditioning

A typical case of maladaptation would be the large-scale deployment

of air conditioning to reduce the impact of heat waves. This solution would

have two harmful consequences: on the one hand, it would increase CO

2

emissions, which would exacerbate the impact of climate change; on the

other hand, it would increase the temperature outside buildings, which

would be dangerous for vulnerable people exposed to it. With a view to

reducing this risk of maladaptation for the Paris region, this issue was

analysed by a French study cited in the IPCC reports for both adaptation and

mitigation issues

28

.

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In this study, the authors simulated a scenario of air conditioning

used in the city in combination with three adaptation actions: the creation of

parks; the insulation of buildings and the use of reflective materials; and the

implementation of effective recommendations for moderate use of air

conditioning.

According to the simulations, this approach would enable effective

adaptation (see the chart below showing the predicted reductions in

temperatures during heatwaves) while reducing greenhouse gas emissions

by around 60 % compared with a situation of poor adaptation that would

simply use air conditioning on a large scale without implementing other

adaptation solutions.

Cart n° 2 : reductions in predicted temperatures during heat

waves

Source: study by Vincent Viguié and co-authors,

“Early adaptation to heat waves and

future reduction of air-

conditioning energy use in Paris”

, Environmental research letters, 2020

Climate services are expanding rapidly, making it possible to

provide information in a digital format suitable for decision-making

support

29

. Three types of climate services can be distinguished:

-

harmonised data portals, mainly operated by climate science bodies;

-

diagnostic and decision-making tools for specific sectors, territories

and issues, often developed at the intersection between climate

29

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24

sciences and the many scientific disciplines that analyse risk,

vulnerability and adaptation;

-

platforms that centralise information on adaptation issues and compile data

portals and diagnostic and decision-making tools, as well as other solutions.

Overall, French public research plays a significant role in 39 services.

The reach of these services can be assessed because they are associated with

publicly accessible websites.

a)

Strategic open data portals

Two of these services account for the majority of online coverage:

Drias Climat

30

, launched in 2012, and the Copernicus Climate Change

Service (C3S)

31

, launched in 2020. These two services offer free and open

reference climate data, without which other research and services relating

to climate issues would not be able to develop.

France, a leading country in the field of climate services

Drias Climat, managed by Météo France, was launched in 2012

with the support of the French ministry of ecological transition. This

reference data portal enjoys a high profile. Within the European Union,

French research centres are well integrated into the workings of European

climate services. The European Earth observation programme Copernicus

was launched in 2013. It is the world’s largest provider of space data and

currently comprises six services that add value to this data, including a

climate change service (C3S). France is the second largest user of C3S.

The

Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace

(IPSL) and the Laboratory of Climate

and Environmental Sciences (LSCE) are the main contributors to this

service. France also participates in research programmes funded by the

European Union. Sixteen of the 26 projects to develop climate services

under the Joint Programming Initiative “Connecting Climate Knowledge

for Europe” (JPI

-Climate) include a French team, and three of them are

coordinated by a French organisation.

b)

Services on the rise, but with significant disparities

As of 2018, the number of climate services deployed has risen

32

signed for

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the period 2017-2020 between the ministry of ecological transition and the

CNRS, aimed at supporting the development of these services. Despite this

quantitative progress, the sectoral reach of these services appears limited,

except in the field of tourism with ClimSnow (see box). Few services

concern teachers and private individuals, although those that do exist have

a higher profile than services for other groups.

ClimSnow

, a flagship climate service for decision-making support

The result of scientific collaboration between Météo France and

INRAE

33

, ClimSnow is operated in association with Dianeige, a private firm

specialising in mountain resort development.

This service makes it possible to assess changes in snow cover under

the impact of climate change. It has been applied to resorts in the Alps and

Pyrenees to predict changes in snow cover in these regions over different

time horizons

34

.

ClimSnow

is also used to provide detailed, fee-based expert

assessments at the request of the stakeholders involved (ski area operators

and local authorities), producing opinions on the ability of ski resorts to

maintain their operations and offering recommendations on tourism strategy

and infrastructure.

ClimSnow

is a rare example of a climate service that combines

diagnostic tools based on high-

level modelling and open data with ’à la

carte’ support for concrete adaptation solutions, even if it is not always used

to good effect by the parties involved

35

.

c)

Insufficient visibility for applied research and research-based solutions

The network of players associated with climate services involving

France is mainly structured around the major French players in the climate

sciences and the Drias Climat portal. Some GRECs play an important role

with in this network.

An adaptation resource centre, planned as part of the second PNACC,

has been set up by the ministry of ecological transition, Cerema, Ademe and

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26

Météo France. The centre receives 10,000 unique visitors a month, an increase

of 15 % over one year. However, despite this momentum, its structuring role

appears to be of secondary importance in the climate services network. A

comparative analysis with the French centre’s European counterpart confirms

this low level of recognition for the French portal. The relative influence of

Drias Climat appears to be much greater (see table 2 below).

Table n° 2 : comparison of the influence of key climate services for

France and the European Union

Nature of service and

associated indicators

French service

European Union (EU)

counterpart service

Information platform

adaptation-changement-

climatique.gouv.fr

climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu

Influence

109

1,353

France/EU ratio

8.1%

Harmonised data portal

drias-climat.fr

climate.copernicus.eu

Influence

1,129

2,752

France/EU ratio

41.0%

Source: influence (number of website citations) calculated with Ubersuggest in June 2023. France

accounted for around 17

, which provides a reference value for

interpreting the ratios presented above.

Regardless of the changes envisaged by the supervisory bodies, the

platform proposed by France to guide adaptation strategies could play a more

central role by including a more exhaustive identification of research projects

and players, as well as a hierarchical ranking of the services offered on the

basis of feedback from users and usage statistics.

In addition to its responsibilities within the IPCC, the ministry of

ecological transition coordinates the PNACC. As such, the second PNACC

requires the ministry of ecological transition to co-

lead the “knowledge and

information” aspect of this action plan with the ministry for higher education

and research, in conjunction with the other ministries and operators. Many

of the actions planned have been implemented in silos. The most striking

example is the financial support provided by the ANR, an agency that

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27

essentially supports fundamental research. However, this funding model has

not made it possible to focus resources on research on adaptation.

The ANR and the ministry of ecological transition do carry out joint

work, but only to track the funding devoted to research on adaptation a

posteriori. Adaptation research, which by definition is interdisciplinary or

37

even transdisciplinary

38

, is more difficult for researchers to promote. The

incentives offered by scientific institutions (in terms of funding,

recruitment, publication and evaluation) are still dominated by the

disciplinary excellence model. This type of research needs to be

coordinated and given specific direction to encourage the structuring of a

scientific community that brings together several sectors and boosts the

production of knowledge, experts and solutions for adaptation.

There are effective tools and methods for stimulating this type of

research, particularly in the agricultural sector

39

and in the fields of the

environment, energy and land-use planning

40

. However, apart from a few

fruitful collaborations between sectors, French innovation models are still

largely structured by sector and therefore by ministerial portfolio. The new

priority research programmes and equipment deployed under the aegis of

the General Secretariat for Investment, such as the Traccs project for

climate services, are no exception to this model.

The development and implementation of a national research strategy

on adaptation issues by the ministry of higher education and research

(MESR), in support of the more general PNACC carried out by the ministry

of transport, energy and communications (MTE), would give impetus to

this field of research and provide better guidance for funding, particularly

in the context of the PEPRs.

Overall, the ministry of higher education and research should

support

a

research

strategy

targeting

adaptation

issues.

Greater

coordination between the various players should be sought with a view to

the next national plan for adaptation to climate change.

37

Interdisciplinarity refers to research conducted by researchers from different

disciplines.

38

Research is transdisciplinary when it is conducted by academic researchers and non-

academic actors.

39

INRAE explained that, for the agricultural world, a range of actors, projects and tools

facilitate the transition from the production of knowledge to the deployment of

innovations in the field, in liaison with the stakeholders concerned.

40

The ministry of ecological transition has a scientific and technical network of

specialised operators, including Météo France, Ademe and Cerema, which facilitate the

scaling up and translation of research knowledge into operational applications.

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__________ CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS _________

France is a world leader in research for adaptation, particularly in

climate science and research into ecosystem services, Mediterranean

areas, coastal areas and small islands. It is also well positioned in

agricultural, forestry and water-related issues. On the other hand, it lacks

scientific expertise in the areas of health, urban planning and cities, as well

as in the field of development, where it is under-resourced in the overseas

territories, and in issues relating to maladaptation. In addition, this

research remains compartmentalised between sectors.

French success stems from the substantial resources deployed over

a long period of time, although there are risks associated with increasingly

stretched human resources, insufficiently targeted funding for research on

adaptation and difficulties in funding research infrastructures. Some

scientific talent pools, which are sometimes in great demand, may not be

able to meet the growing demand, despite the increase in ’exceptional’

funding available in these areas. Overall, the resources deployed could

soon prove insufficient to meet the needs generated by the transition.

Under the impetus of the main players in the climate sciences and

sectoral research institutes, digital climate services are beginning to be

deployed with a view to adaptation, albeit with varying degrees of success.

The visibility of these services, like that of the much wider range of

solutions for adaptation and French scientific expertise, suffers from

shortcomings and could be enhanced. The governance of research for

adaptation could be strengthened by better linking the national level with

the profusion of local initiatives that are progressing in a fragmented

fashion.

The Court makes the following recommendations:

1.

develop a national strategy for adaptation research to support the

national plan for adaptation to climate change (ministry of higher

education and research);

2.

rebalance resources in favour of research on adaptation, with

particular emphasis on health, cities, overseas territories and areas

where adaptation and mitigation are shared (ministry of higher

education and research, ministry of ecological transition and

territorial cohesion);

3.

create a label for regional climate expert groups and include them in

a network coordinated by the ministry of ecological transition

(ministry of higher education and research, ministry of ecological

transition and territorial cohesion, High Council for the Climate);

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4.

set up research dashboards and a map of the expertise available to all

players on adaptation to climate change and other scientific issues

relating to climate and biodiversity (ministry of higher education and

research, ministry of ecological transition and territorial cohesion);

5.

prioritise climate services, tools that offer decision-making support based

on climate projections, according to their use and user feedback (ministry

of ecological transition and territorial cohesion).

Responses received

at the date of publication

Response from the minister for environmental transition and territorial cohesion

.........

32

Response from the minister for higher education and research

..............................

32

Response from the secretary general of the secretariat general for investment (SGPI)

.....

36

Response from the chair of the high council for the climate

..................................

37

Response from the chairman and chief executive officer of the french national

research agency (ANR)

..........................................................................................

3

9

Recipients with no comments

The Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of the National Centre for Scientific

Research (CNRS)

The President and Chief Executive Officer of Météo France

Recipient who did not respond

The Minister for Energy Transition

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RESPONSE FROM THE MINISTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

TRANSITION AND TERRITORIAL COHESION

The State deploys observation, expertise and research capabilities.

These various components need to be aligned, as the Court of Accounts

points out, not forgetting innovation, education and the territorial aspect.

While the minister for higher education and research provides

overall coordination, I share the concern that research should support

public policy.

The bodies under the authority of my ministry are thus

positioned to focus on research and expertise in support of action. F

or

example, Météo France, a key player in the field of climate data and

services, Cerema, which works on reducing vulnerability and promoting

more resilient territorial development, and the

Université Gustave Eiffel

(UGE), which works on sustainable adaptation of towns and territories.

You highlight the contribution of several research programmes

(PEPR), supported by France 2030, to adaptation issues. This is due to the

nature of the subject, which is at the intersection of very wide-ranging issues,

both technological and societal, such as the resilience of societies and urban

adaptation. I will take care to ensure that my ministry is able to draw

valuable lessons from the convergence of these different areas of work.

RESPONSE FROM THE MINISTER FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

AND RESEARCH

First of all, I would like to thank the Court of Accounts for the in-

depth and original work it has carried out on a subject that has become a

major public policy issue. While research was clearly at the root of early

identification of climate change, the predictive studies and scenarios it has

developed have also made it possible to anticipate its negative effects and

the risks it poses to our society and, more broadly, to humanity as a whole.

As the Court’s report rightly points out, research must play a particular

role in identifying the issues, quantifying the phenomena and finding

solutions to deal with situations that we know are inevitable.

The ministry of higher education and research (MESR) commends

the high quality of the work presented in this section of the 2024 annual

public report. This work is based on original, in-depth analyses of the

bibliometrics relating to the reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC), a global centre of scientific expertise on

climate. These methods of analysis, developed in conjunction with the

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French National Research Agency (ANR) and fed by national databases,

make it possible to better qualify at international level the position of

French research in the climate sciences and in the fields of adaptation

and mitigation. They make it possible to identify the most active regions,

the least well-represented themes and the work to be carried out at the

intersection between these different areas.

Given the interest of these developments, my department has already

taken the initiative of examining, with the Court and the ANR, the extent to

which these methods of analysis could be used to constitute a tool for

regular monitoring of French scientific production in the various fields of

research on climate and even biodiversity.

The overall assessment of

the work produced through the Court’s

investigation shows that our national research system is of the highest

international standard, contributing significantly in terms of quality and

visibly in terms of impact to the reports produced by the IPCC.

I sha

re the Court’s conclusions regarding the exceptional influence

of French research on climate, biodiversity, agronomy, hydrology and

forestry. On the other hand, the fields of health and urban planning

associated with climate change unfortunately appear to be lagging behind.

While the MESR has expressed reservations about the methodology

used to qualify research at the “intersection”, it also shares the assessment

of persistent compartmentalisation between different fields and the

significant risk of maladaptation that may result. There is also a lack of

research in the humanities and social sciences, which should be a driving

force in identifying vulnerabilities and developing adaptation and mitigation

solutions that can be understood and implemented by all players in society.

Interdisciplinarity, the foundation of sustainability science, is essential.

In response to the Court’s analysis attributing the change in the ANR’s

funding of research on adaptation to the discontinuation of the “management

and impacts

of climate change” programme, it should be noted that the ANR

continues to fund projects of excellence, initiated by researchers, some of which

may target the issue of adaptation.

In addition, the France 2030 programme funds exploratory

research programmes proposed by researchers or backed by national

acceleration strategies, in the latter case proposed by an entire industry.

Under France 2030, 22 priority research programmes and equipment

(PEPR) are contributing to the environmental transition:

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-

3 are strictly dedicated to the climate and are funded in the amount of

€156 million;

-

8 are dedicated to mitigating climate change and are funded in the

amount of €451 million;

-

the remaining 11 deal with these two themes as well as adaptation to

climate c

hange, and are funded in the amount of €432 million.

The Court uses the example of the ANR’s funding of projects

dedicated to adaptation to note that the National Plan for Adaptation to

Climate Change (PNACC) has not had the expected effect on the Agency’s

programming. It believes that research for adaptation should be led jointly

by the ministries responsible for ecology and research. It is clear that the

PNACC, due to its sectoral nature and its operational dimension, is not a

relevant framework for research programming. It could, however, better

identify the issues facing research to enable its operational deployment.

In recent years, the General Secretariat for Investment has provided

major programmatic and financial support for the State’s strategic

priorities, among which the climate in all its dimensions, including issues

related to adaptation and mitigation, figures prominently. The PEPRs

providing the knowledge that will be produced as part of the contributions

expected from research could be identified in the PNACC 3 with a view to

answering the questions it sets out.

Following on from the publication of the report commissioned by

the Minister from Mr Philippe Gillet, the coordination and programming

of research into issues of major societal concern, such as adaptation to

climate change, will be entrusted to programme agencies. On 7 December,

the French President announced the creation of these agencies, which will

operate under the auspices of the main national research bodies.

In addition to these considerations, I would like to draw your attention

to my comments on the four recommendations addressed to me.

Recommendation 1 is to “develop a national strategy for adaptation

research to support the national plan for adaptation to climate change”.

As indicated above, the various PEPRs producing knowledge in

support of adaptation to climate change will be explicitly mentioned in the

PNACC 3 and the expertise thus developed can be mobilised as required.

This is the first way in which research can support the PNACC.

As far as the direction of research on this theme is concerned, the

President of the Republic has entrusted the French National Centre for

Scientific Research with the role of programme agency on the theme of

climate, biodiversity and sustainab

le societies. The agency’s remit will be

to define the priority research topics to be included in the programming of

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these themes, including adaptation to climate change, and to oversee their

implementation where necessary. It is within this new programming

framework that the production of a national roadmap for climate change

research could be proposed.

Recommendation 2 is to “rebalance resources in favour of research

on adaptation, with particular emphasis on health, cities, overseas

territories and areas

where adaptation and mitigation are shared”.

The

Sustainable

City

Solutions

and

Innovative

Buildings

programme is a PEPR that focuses on urban adaptation, with a clear

emphasis on health-related issues.

The new programme agency supported by the CNRS, mentioned

above, and the programme agency dedicated to health supported by the

National Institute for Health and Medical Research, provide the

framework for the emergence of projects in these two areas.

Recommendation 3 is to “create a label for regional clim

ate expert

groups and include them in a network coordinated by the ministry of

ecological t

ransition”.

The MESR could support the ministry of ecological transition and

territorial cohesion if it decides to study the implementation of this proposal

in conjunction with the High Council for the Climate.

Recommendation 4 is to “set up research dashboards and a map of

the expertise available to all players on adaptation to climate change and

other scientific issues relating to climate and biodiversity”.

The national low-

carbon strategy, the MESR’s Climate and

Biodiversity Plan and the PNACC 3 include a “knowledge production”

component designed to advance our understanding of the climate, its evolution

in terms of risks, and the possibilities for mitigating it while adapting to its

inevitable consequences. Monitoring these actions via a comprehensive

dashboard is problematic due to the different timescales inherent in research

and its exploitation (around 5 years are needed for a publication).

However, the Cour

t of Accounts’ methodological work could be

used to develop a mapping of the themes to be monitored over time, with

an associated bibliometric system, in order to be able to report on the

knowledge produced. A feasibility study will enable us to see what action

could effectively be taken on this mapping project. The mapping of

expertise is most likely to fall within the remit of the scientific and technical

network (network of environmental research operators) led by the ministry

of ecological transition and territorial cohesion.

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RESPONSE FROM THE SECRETARY GENERAL OF THE

SECRETARIAT GENERAL FOR INVESTMENT (SGPI)

The Court lists 11 priority research programmes and equipment

within the scope of research for adaptation (PEPR). In fact, 20 PEPRs are

specifically linked to transition and adaptation issues, with a cross-

disciplinary approach that avoids the disciplinary silos mentioned in the

report, details of which can be found in the appendix.

These numerous funded projects are complemented by actions to

support the early stages and further development of research in areas such

as mobility, decarbonisation of industry and renewable energies, with

average budgets of €20 million per project.

In addition, the SCPI is funding a “research at risk” initiative, which

aims to improve the means of detecting and accelerating new scientific

discoveries, and to support research whose potential applications are broader

than initially anticipated, requiring a rapid, custom response. Part of this €500

million funding package is being used to set up programme agencies within

national research bodies. Their purpose is to respond to a number of comments

made in the report, in particular the need for national oversight of research

programmes that are deemed strategic due to their high societal impact and/or

national interest, particularly in areas in which greater coordination between

research players, on the one hand, and between ministries to clarify the

mandate given by the State, on the other, is essential. These include:

-

the “climate, biodiversity and sustainable societies” programme

agency, led by the CNRS (in conjunction with IFREMER and IRD),

responsible for improving understanding and prediction of the

functioning of the Earth system and treating climate, biodiversity and

human societies as interconnected systems (with a particular focus on

the acceptability of the solutions emerging in response to climate

change);

-

the “agriculture, sustainable food, forests and natural resources”

programme agency, led by INRAE;

-

the

“carbon

-

free energies” programme agency, led by the CEA.

Finally, we should mention that through the “higher education,

research and innovation ecosystems” component of France 2030, we are

providing structural support for research establishments and universities, with

schemes such as the “Initiatives of Excellence” (Idex), “Science/Innovation/

Territories/Economy Initiatives” (Isite), and “Excellence in all its forms”,

making it possible to fund fundamental research through long-term

programmes, a growing proportion of which is devoted to the challenges of

environmental transition. The amount earmarked for this area, excluding

PEPR and Research at Risk, is €4 billion in the France 2030 budget.

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RESPONSE FROM THE CHAIR OF THE HIGH COUNCIL

FOR THE CLIMATE

In response to your referral of 23 November 2023, and in accordance

with Articles L. 143-6 and R 143-13 of the French Financial Jurisdiction

Code, below is the response of the High Council for the Climate to the draft

section entitled “The place and role of p

ublic research in adapting to climate

change”, which is to be included in the Court of Accounts’ 2024 annual public

report. For ease of reading, the various aspects are grouped by category.

Observation and data series

Building up long series of data is essential for reliable impact

monitoring and for producing and calibrating targeted climate projections.

In general, too little attention is paid to the challenges and needs of

observations and observatories as a complement to modelling. Meeting the

need for general or thematic observations could be highlighted as a key

factor in improving the representativeness of assessments and projections,

whether in terms of physical impacts or general or sectoral vulnerabilities.

Assessing vulnerability and adaptation needs

The

systematic

establishment

of

vulnerability

assessments

covering the whole of the national territory in metropolitan and overseas

France should make up for the lack of a national inventory covering

observed trends, impacts, model assessments, impact and risk

projections, impacts avoided by adaptation, losses and damage, etc.

Similar national reports are produced in other countries (e.g. USA). They

make it possible to monitor losses and damage and adaptation needs at

different levels in order to establish a framework. For the establishment

of such an inventory in France, the CNRS/INSU, in a context of declining

national funding, appears to be a logical player to structure research on

adaptation as an extension of its structuring role in climate sciences.

Regional funding should also be examined in order to establish diagnoses

based on cutting-edge, evolving scientific knowledge and involving the

various disciplines concerned in the climate sciences and beyond.

Human resources

Although France’s main st

rengths are reflected in the section, we

feel it is important to draw attention to the concerns regarding the

recruitment shortfall about which several laboratory directors have

expressed concern and which has recently been reported in the press.

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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38

Upstream of recruitment issues, the M2 adaptation training programme

should be considered to ensure that the topics covered in initial training

are relevant to the adaptation needs identified (in addition to section B2).

Decision-making support and climate services

“The vital but inconsistent role of scientific expertise in decision

-

making support” must encompass climate and socio

-economic aspects and

be regularly updated with the latest impact data for the purposes of

translating research into improved decision-making support for both the

public and private sectors. Vulnerability is often a weakness of the French

approach, which focuses on exposure and hazards

.

As an extension of

research activities, the development of a range of consultancy services

capable of taking full advantage of the results and products of research

represents an important dimension in the wider consideration of

adaptation needs.

Financial resources

Relevant research on adaptation must be based on cutting-edge,

evolving knowledge derived from fundamental research in the climate

sciences, which must continue to be strengthened. There is also a need to

deploy essential additional resources in the various impact areas, in

particular

civil

protection

and

land-

use

planning.

“Rebalancing

resources” sh

ould not mean reducing the resources of some to increase

those of others.

Analysis method

Monitoring French participation in international conferences on

adaptation also reflects the international visibility of French research. The

digital base should be

linked to the “digital and ecological planning”

roadmap coordinated by the SGPE.

Comments on wording

(Box in C/ Vital infrastructures with uncertain long-term financing)

It is preferable to use “global projections” rather than “predictions”. It

would be mo

re appropriate to use the term “representativeness” rather

than “hierarchy” to refer to the position of the French experts.

Elements that could be given greater prominence

The first point relates to the scope of the disciplines identified, which

tends to underestimate the dimensions of land-use planning, sustainable

development, risk prevention, crisis management and governance

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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39

traditionally dealt with in France in the geographical sciences, economics,

management sciences, sociology and political science. This bias means

that the contributions of internationally recognised French players in

research on adaptation, such as the IRD, IDDRI, geography laboratories

and BRGM for soil and coastal issues, are not particularly visible. Once

the scope of the study has been broadened, a comparison of research

efforts in France with comparable countries would be relevant. European

policy on research on adaptation would benefit from a better description.

The second missing point concerns territorial initiatives, both at the

level of local or thematic observatories (e.g. GREC, highly disparate

scopes and roles to be evaluated, co-production of knowledge? collective

and transparent evaluation? appropriation by local authorities?) and

structures transposing the functioning of the IPCC at a dedicated

geographical scale (e.g. MEDECC for the Mediterranean region).

The third point would be to look more closely at the issue of

maladaptation, which deserves to be developed in greater detail (for

example, the focus on heatwaves in densely populated urban areas without

addressing the additional demand for electricity, which needs to be

brought into line with an energy strategy), and other examples,

particularly those relating to dykes (BRGM).

Finally, the last point relates more broadly to issues of fair

transition and the need for research into the governance of climate action

to better protect the most vulnerable, particularly in terms of access to

water resources in periods of persistent water stress, or risk management

and prevention.

RESPONSE FROM THE CHAIRMAN AND CHIEF EXECUTIVE

OFFICER OF THE FRENCH NATIONAL RESEARCH AGENCY (ANR)

I would like to thank you for the draft section to be included in the

Court of Accounts’ 2024 annual public report on the place and role of

research in adaptation to climate change.

I would like to emphasise the quality of the work carried out by the

Court, as well as the quality of the interactions established between the

Court and the ANR on methodological aspects, enabling the Court to

develop methods for analysing the performance and resources of French

research for adaptation to climate change.

With regard to the ANR, the Court rightly points out that “over the

period 2012-

2022, funding allocated to research for adaptation increased”.

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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40

Taking into account the commitments made in the research programming

law, particularly concerning the initial allocation and funding for the Carnot

programme, the share allocated to generic calls for projects increased from

€758.2 million in 2022 to €761 million in 2023,

i.e. an increase of 0.8%.

In the subsequent paragraph, the changes mentioned by the Court

should be correlated with the periods analysed, which are not specified

and cannot under any circumstances relate to 2023, the results of which

could not be known at the time of the review.

The Court states that “ANR funding is allocated in proportion to the

number of projects submitted to evaluation committees”. The ANR does

not dispute this observation of a past situation resulting from a constrained

budgetary context. When selection rates are below 20%, as is also the case

for the ERC, funding agencies generally apply identical selection rates for

the various selection committees. The increase in resources allocated to

the ANR under the research programming law will enable this approach

to change.

The Court then deduces that “insofar as there is no specific

evaluation committee for adaptation, funding in this area is automatically

reduced”. This assertion is debatable, as it could imply that if a committee

had been dedicated to adaptation, projects of lesser scientific quality could

have been funded. Moreover, a dedicated committee would not necessarily

be suited to the necessary interdisciplinarity and to the fact that, as the

Court points out, research on adaptation to climate change must form part

of a continuum of research that takes the form of different thematic

committees or different funding instruments, and involve very different

approaches and very different areas of technology.

The ANR agrees with the Court’s

observation that “research on

adaptation needs specific incentives to strengthen the scientific

communities involved and the links between them”. These incentives are

based on international, European, national and regional actions and are

part of several levels of actions implemented by the ANR:

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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41

Supporting French teams in international research consortia

For the past year, the ANR has co-chaired the Belmont Forum (with

RCN, a Norwegian funding agency). Created in 2009 at the initiative of the

US National Science Foundation (NSF), the Belmont Forum is an

international consortium of funding agencies from around thirty countries,

playing a key role in supporting research into global change, and climate

change in particular. The Belmont Forum has supported more than 150

research projects, involving some 1,000 scientists from 90 countries,

focusing on integrated approaches, particularly to the impacts of and

adaptations to climate change.

Playing a leading role in European partnerships

Horizon 2020 and now Horizon Europe partnerships are based on

collaboration between the European Commission and national funding

agencies. In particular, the ANR is involved in long-term partnerships

between Europe and Africa, as well as in a dozen new partnerships, many

of which focus on adaptation to climate change.

Supporting excellence at national level

Through two levers:

-

Implementation

of

France

2030

programmes

(“directed

-

programmes” lever): as highlighted by the Court, 11 PEPRs relate to

research on climate change, in particular adaptation to climate

change.

-

Support for young researchers and interdisciplinary collaborative

projects (“investigator

-

driven projects” lever): 80

% of the projects in

the action plan are in line with at least one of the 17 United Nations

Sustainable Development Goals, and a third, which are highly

interdisciplinary, are specifically geared towards major transitions

(sustainability sciences, environmental and ecological transitions, energy

transitions, one health, etc.).

Organising regional partnerships and co-funding to meet local needs

As the Court emphasises, one essential aspect is the regional

dimension of research and expertise to meet specific local needs, involving

the various stakeholders (local authorities, associations, etc.). Particular

attention must be paid to the overseas regions. Following the mobilisation

of research on overseas issues related to adaptations to climate change, in

particular regarding Sargassum, involving and co-financed by Ademe, the

local authorities of Martinique and French Guiana, and the Guadeloupe

region, an initial action was followed by a second call extended to funding

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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42

agencies that are partners of ANR (the Brazilian agency Facepe, Connacyt

from Mexico and NWO from the Netherlands). A programme on

biodiversity and protected marine areas in the Indian Ocean was set up

and coordinated by the ANR, co-financed by the AFD and involving the

National Research Foundation of South Africa, the National Research

Foundation of Kenya, the Mozambique National Research Fund and the

Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology, and open to teams

from the Comoros, Madagascar and Mauritius.

This strategy of mobilising scientific expertise and research to meet

specific regional needs in mainland France is also one of the agency’s

priorities. A programme on the impacts of climate change on regional

ecosystems will be set up in 2023 by the ANR, in partnership with the Pays

de la Loire and Normandy regions, focusing on adaptations to river

flooding, the deterioration of water quality and the local impacts of rising

sea levels.

With regard to the exceptional funding provided as part of the

Investments for the Future programme, which has become France 2030,

the Court notes that the funding was concentrated on the period of the first

PNACC (€270 million) rather than the second (€126 million). It should be

noted that these amounts correspond to commitment authorisations and not

payment appropriations. All the projects financed during the first PNACC

were still active during the second and therefore received part of their

funding after 2015, when the first PNACC came to an end.

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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Appendix for international readers

Presentation of

Cour des comptes

(France): who we are and what

we do?

Established in 1807, the

Cour des comptes

(also referred to as

“

Court of accounts

” or Court in the text)

is the supreme audit institution

(SAI) for France overseeing the use of public funds at the national level. It

is independent from the Government and Parliament. It has financial

jurisdiction and is in charge of auditing, issuing rulings and certifying the

State and Social Security accounts, as well as contributing to the evaluation

of public policies. The Cour des Comptes, whose role is described in article

47-2 of the French Constitution, contributes to citizen information through

its public reports.

The Cour is independent of public authorities. Within the framework

provided by French law, it freely defines its work program, possesses

control powers both documentarily and on-site, freely adopts its

conclusions, and enjoys editorial freedom. Engaging in public debate

through its publications, it aims to be useful to decision-makers and citizens

alike and actively contributes to improving public management and its

outcomes.

Opportunities related to developed methods and shared open

data

In order to stimulate new uses in a perspective of general interest,

the source code elements associated with the most important methods and

the main associated datasets are provided in a digitally exploitable format

(see summaries and links below).

This approach is part of the Court’s international cooperation policy

with the supreme audit institutions (SAI) of other countries as well as its

scientific cooperation policy with major French research operators.

It is thus possible to adapt the method presented here for other

countries and groups of countries. Beyond direct applications, other

potential applications include, for example, extending the analyses to the

upcoming works of the 7th IPCC assessment report or to the publications

of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services (IPBES) on biodiversity-related challenges.

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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44

Disclaimer

The elements provided do not necessarily reflect the positions of

third parties such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

(IPCC).

The report on the "Place and Role of Research in Climate Change

Adaptation" and the associated open elements presented below are not

IPCC products, have not been subject to formal IPCC review processes and

have not been endorsed by the IPCC. The IPCC does not assume any

responsibility for their accuracy.

Any reference to or usage of IPCC

materials, including glossaries and annexes, is for information purposes

only. Use of or reliance thereon of any information is solely at the users

own risk. The IPCC disclaims any and all liability, including any express

or implied representations or warranties, whether oral or written, for any

third-party uses of the material provided.

Composition of the open electronic archive accessible on the

Cour's

website

public-report-2024 :

•

Guide

"Cahier_MethodesEtDonnees_Recherche_Adaptation_RPA_

2024.docx"

: this methodological guide presents the detailed

methods and data used in the chapter of the Cour des Comptes'

2024 annual public report regarding the place and role of public

research in adapting to climate change. The detailed results

underlying the observations formulated succinctly in the chapter

are also presented. These results serve as examples of applications

of the methods developed here.

•

Folder "elements_from_IPCC_reports

": this folder enables the

reproduction of the chapter's observations based on the analysis

method of citations from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC) works in its 6th Assessment Report (AR6) and

associated metadata on harmonized bases, as well as on the

semantic approach derived from the IPCC glossaries and corpus.

The files associated with this folder are provided in a digitally

exploitable format under a "CC-BY-NC 4.0 " license to stimulate

new uses for general interest. Note that only non-commercial uses

THE PLACE AND ROLE OF PUBLIC RESEARCH IN ADAPTING

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45

are authorized by the CC-BY-NC 4.0 license

41

, and these elements

are subject to the disclaimer mentioned above. Contents of the

folder are as below:

o

File

"ipcc_ar6_reports_doi_citations.csv"

containing

harmonized citations of type "DOI" from the three main

reports of the three groups of the IPCC’

s 6th assessment

report (the harmonization method is detailed in the

methodological guide);

o

File "ipcc_ar6_reports_keywords_in_titles.csv" which

gathers keywords extracted from the glossaries of the

three main AR 6 IPCC reports and hierarchized with

citation metadata (see the guide for more details).

•

Folder "mots_cles_adaptation_analyses_semantiques"

: this

folder includes all the elements necessary to reproduce the

semantic analyses implemented in the report. The source code

elements and associated keywords are provided in a digitally

exploitable format under the "GNU General Public License

v3.0"

42

to stimulate new uses for general interest. Potential

41

Copyright notice: these files are derived from the investigation on the place and role

of public research in adapting to climate change conducted by the Cour des Comptes

(2024) following the methodology and sources presented in the methodological guide.

These elements are not IPCC products, have not been subject to formal IPCC review

processes and have not been endorsed by the IPCC. The IPCC does not assume any

responsibility for their accuracy.

Any reference to or usage of IPCC materials,

including glossaries and annexes, is for information purposes only. Use of or reliance

thereon of any information is solely at the users own risk. The IPCC disclaims any and

all liability, including any express or implied representations or warranties, whether

oral or written, for any third-party uses of the material provided. These elements are

provided

under

a

"CC-BY-NC

v4.0"

license

(see

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/, as well as the full and identical copy

of this license provided in the present open electronic archive).

42

Copyright notice: these files are derived from the investigation on the place and role

of public research in adapting to climate change conducted by the Cour des Comptes

(2024) following the methodology and sources presented in the methodological guide.

These elements are provided under a "GNU General Public License v3.0" license (see

https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.txt, as well as the full and identical copy of this

license provided in the present open electronic archive). The open data from the ANR

used as an application case for this script are provided by the Agency at this address:

https://www.data.gouv.fr/fr/organizations/agence-nationale-de-la-recherche/#/datasets

Simple examples of keywords derived from the theme of the Court's 2024 annual public

report on adaptation to climate change are presented here to illustrate the approach.